PROTECTED
AREAS
According
to International Union for Conservation Nature (IUCN) (1994) protected areas
are defined as areas of land and/or sea especially dedicated to protection and
maintenance of biological diversity and of natural and associated cultural
resources and managed through legal or other effective means.
Although
all protected areas meet the general purposes contained in this definition, in
practice the precise purposes for which protected areas are managed differ
greatly.
Rationale for Establishment of
Protected Areas
The
primary motivation for establishing natural or protected areas was to limit
adverse impacts of resource and
economic development on natural resources for common good. Some of the important
of natural resources are:-
1. Esthetic
value (Aesthetic value)
Ø This
is the value of resource in making the world more beautiful, more appealing to
the senses and generally more pleasant. Some people place no value to this and
would pay northing for it while others find it indispensable
2. Emotional
values
Ø This
is the value of resource beyond sensory enjoyment. Some people for example
develop very strong emotional bonds to certain natural areas or certain animal
or plant species. This is sometimes called sense of a ‘‘place’’. Many psychologists
consider nature to be important for mental health, especially children
3. Economic
/ Commercial value
Ø This
is type of value involved with tangible products that can be bought or sold.
For example food, timber, energy etc. The value of resources for tourism,
native fruits, or other sustainable products is ultimately much greater than
the value of their destructive uses.
4. Environmental
service values/Ecological value
Ø This
is the value of resources in providing intangible services that allow humans
(and other life) to exist on earth. For
example plants help to purify air, produce oxygen and purify water. Natural
vegetation cover in the water catchment areas helps to maintain hydrological
cycles, regulating and stabilizing water runoff, acting as a buffer against
extreme events such as flood and drought. Forest also regulate climate, home of
animal species, provide soil nutrients and protect soil erosion
5. Ethical/
cultural or Intrinsic value
Ø This
is the value of resource unto itself, regardless of its value to humans.
Intrinsic values are egocentric or environmental oriented.
Institutions working for protected
areas
Ø Protected
areas management is supported by a wide range of governments, NGOs, community
and private companies. Some work globally or at continental scale others are at
national regional and local levels.
International Institutions
Ø International
protected area organizations and programmes play a central role in
Ø developing
best practice standards and strategies for conserving nature
Ø Increasing
national awareness of the need for protected areas
Ø Sharing
success and difficulties experienced by various national programmes through
communication networks.
· The
significant outcome of such discourse on protected areas has been the formation
of several major international institutions, conventions and agreements that
have assisted developing worldwide conservation efforts. Examples of
international agencies and NGOs are :-
Ø United
Nations agencies such as the United Nations, Scientific and Cultural
Organisation (UNESCO-1945)
Ø United
Nations Environmental Programmes (UNEP - 1972)
Ø United
Nations Development Programmes (UNDP-1965), Global Environment Facility
(GEF-1991),
Ø World
Wide Fund (WWF-1961) which in 1986 changed its name to World wide fund for
Nature (WWF) and
Ø International
Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) which was established in 1947. IUCN
is the World’s largest and most important network bringing together 100
national and government agencies and 800 NGOs as per 2005.
Categories of protected areas
· The
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in 1994 defined six
protected area management categories, based on primary management objective.
These categories are:-
1.
Category
1 a): Strict Nature Reserve: Protected
area managed mainly for science
· Area
of land and/or sea possessing some outstanding or representative ecosystems,
geological or physiological features and/or species, available primarily for
scientific research and/or environmental monitoring.
Category
1 b): Wilderness Area: Protected
area managed mainly for wilderness protection
· Large
area of unmodified or slightly modified land, and/or sea, retaining its natural
character and influence, without permanent or significant habitation, which is
protected and managed so as to preserve its natural condition.
1.
Category
2: National Park: Protected
area managed mainly for ecosystem protection and recreation
· Natural
area of land and/or sea, designated to:-
Ø protect
the ecological integrity of one or more ecosystems for present and future generations,
Ø exclude
exploitation or occupation inimical to the purposes of designation of the area
and
Ø provide
a foundation for spiritual, scientific, educational, recreational and visitor
opportunities, all of which must be environmentally and culturally compatible.
2. Category 3: Natural Monument: Protected area managed mainly for
conservation of specific natural features
· Area
containing one or more, specific natural or natural/cultural feature which is
of outstanding or unique value because of its inherent rarity, representative
or cultural significance
3. Category 4: Habitat/Species Management
Area:
Protected area managed mainly for
conservation through management intervention
· Area
of land and/or sea subject to active intervention for management purposes so as
to ensure the maintenance of habitats and/or to meet the requirements of
specific species.
4.
Category
5: Protected Landscape/Seascape: Protected area managed mainly for landscape/seascape conservation and
recreation
· Area
of land, with coast and sea as appropriate, where the interaction of people and
nature over time has produced an area of distinct character with significant
aesthetic, ecological and/or cultural value, and often with high biological
diversity. Safeguarding the integrity of this traditional interaction is vital
to the protection, maintenance and evolution of such an area.
5. Category 6: Managed Resource
Protected Area: Protected area managed mainly for the
sustainable use of natural ecosystems
· Area
containing predominantly unmodified natural systems, managed to ensure long
term protection and maintenance of biological diversity, while providing at the
same time a sustainable flow of natural products and services to meet community
needs.
CATEGORIES
OF PROTECTED AREAS IN TANZANIA
Tanzania's
PAs are grouped into 6 categories according to the degree of protection offered
to the land and wildlife and order of greatest to least protection. These
categories are:-
National parks, game reserves,
Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA), game controlled areas, partial game
reserves and forest reserves.
1. NATIONAL PARKS
National
parks are areas of high biodiversity values and represent unique habitats of Tanzania.
The main purpose of these areas is
conservation of representative habitats and wild animals, which constitute
unique naturally occurring biodiversity of Tanzania.
In the National Parks only
non-consumptive tourism-recreational activities (wildlife viewing), education
and research are permitted. National
Parks are established by the National Parks Ordinance Act, Cap. 412 of 1959 and
are managed by the Tanzania National Parks (TANAPA), which is governed by a
Board of Trustees of National Parks.
There are 16 National Parks which cover
4% of the country's total land surface which are Ruaha, Serengeti, Tarangire,
Mikumi, Saadan, Kituro plateau, Udzungwa mountains, Ngorongoro, Lake Manyara, Katavi, Arusha, Mahale mountains, Gombe stream,
Kilimanjaro and Rubondo Island and mkomazi National Park.
2.
Game Reserves
Are protected areas where activities related to
consumptive and non-consumptive tourism-hunting, research and education are
permitted. Game Reserves are administered by the Wildlife Conservation Act No.
12 of 1974 and are managed by the Wildlife Division of the Ministry of Natural Resources
and Tourism. There are 32 Game Reserves covering 13% of the total land surface
area. Some of the game reserves in Tanzania are Selous, Maswa, Rungwa,
Moyowosi, Kigosi, Muhesi, Usangu, Lukwati, Rukwa and Burigi game reserves.
3.
Ngorongoro Conservation Areas
Ngorongoro Conservation Area covers 1 % of the
total land surface area. This is a unique area in terms of conservation of
archaeology, culture, wildlife and water catchments. Settlements by the Maasai
tribe, minimal grazing, non-consumptive tourism-animal viewing, education and
research are permitted. The Ngorongoro Conservation Area is managed by the
Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority, which is governed by a Board of
Trustees.
4.
Game Controlled Areas
Are protected areas where licensed hunting,
non-consumptive tourism, human settlements and other human activities, research
and education are permitted. There are 43 Game Controlled Areas, which cover
9.6% of the total land surface area. These areas are administered by the
Wildlife Conservation Act No. 12 of 1974 and are managed by the Wildlife
Division in collaboration with District Councils. eg Loliondo and Longido game
controlled areas in Northern Tanzania.
5. Partial
Game Reserves
This is a category of wildlife conservation area as
stipulated in the Wildlife Conservation Act No. 12 of 1974, which aim to serve
in the protection of species of national or international conservation
importance. eg the conservation of the Kihansi Spray Toad (a yellowish dwarf
toad)- which are found in the waterfalls of Kihansi Gorge.
The Wildlife
Policy of Tanzania emphasizes, on the intention of the policy to continue
maintaining this category so as to conserve endemic-species found in only one
geographical area, rare-uncommon/scarce and endangered species (species that are
endanger of becoming extinct).
6. Forest
Reserves (FRs)
Are protected
Areas where Scientific research, tourism, bee keeping, foot path and firewood
collection are permitted. About 13
million hactors have been gazetted as forest reserves. Out of the forest
reserve area, 1.6 million hactors are managed as catchment forests and about 6%
is within the National Parks. Some of the forest reserves are under the central
government, local government; private forests and others are under
Participatory Forest Management (PFM) which has secured title deeds from the government.
Examples of Forest Reserves in Tanzania are Nyang’oro woodland Forest Reserve -Iringa
(CBFM), Chome catchment forest reserve- Pare mountains, Rondo FR-Lindi,
Udzungwa scalp -Kilolo, Kazimzumbwi-in Coast region, Pugu hills (central government),
Rungwe, TANWAT-Njombe (private), Kitapilimwa – government.
CRITERIA FOR
SELECTION OF AREAS FOR PROTECTION
For the
selection of terrestrial and marine natural areas, the most common criteria to
be considered, among others, by the Governments, are the following.
1. Presence of biogeographical units, ecological environments, highly diversified
natural units or biological richness
2.
Presence of threatened or endangered species, particularly those which require their habitats regulated against human
intervention. Endangered species are those plants and animals that are
in danger of becoming extinct due to various factors including human
activities, illegal hunting, and changes in climate
Threatened species are plants and animals that are likely to become endangered
within the anticipated future throughout all or a significant portion of its
range. Eg. Tanzania has important population of species that are globally
endangered and threatened. These include Black rhinoceros, Wild-dogs,
Chimpanzee, African elephants and cheetah. In total, Tanzania harbours about 33
species of mammals, 30-birds and 19-fish as globally threatened.
3.
Contribution of the area to the
maintenance of ecological and environmental functions or processes, including
the life cycles of biological species and communities of particular interest. Concentration of wildlife or of communities and
species of scientific, ecological or economic interest. In this regard,
governments must consider as priority to the protection of habitats which
contain useful populations of economically important genetic resources. eg.
plants used in the manufacture of pharmaceuticals
4.
Protection of watersheds, particularly those which are essential to the
stability, protection and proper functioning of important coastal and marine
environments eg. coastal lakes, beaches, mangrove swamps and coral reefs
5.
Special sites for migratory species,
especially those associated with wetland areas.
Also, areas where great concentrations of breeding, nesting, feeding and
wintering of marine organisms and birds occur.
6.
Existence of endemic species (species’ that is found only on a certain region
and nowhere else in the world eg. Kihans Spraying Toads) particularly local
species, with limited distribution and populations. Endemic species are of
conservation concern because they are not widespread and may be confined to
only one or two protected areas
e.g. The Eastern Arc mountains forest (Taita Hills, North and South Pare,
West and East Usambara, North and South Nguru, Ukaguru, Uluguru, Rubeho, and
Udzungwa) contain at least 800 endemic plant species, 10 endemic mammals
species, 19 endemic birds species, 31 endemic reptiles species and 40 endemic
amphibians species. The 2006 IUCN identifies 78 vertebrate species as
threatened in the Eastern Arc Mountains including 8 critically endangered
species.
9. The presence of unique or rare national, regional, or international
landscapes or ecosystems/resources
Rare resources are the resources that are very uncommon, scarce, or
infrequently encountered
Species is
marked as rare species if a specific species is represented by a small number
of organisms worldwide, usually fewer than 10,000
10. Existence
of customary and traditional activities which support the well-being of local
populations on a sustainable basis.
11. Existence of tourism and
recreational resources, that
allow for the application of a wide range of options in use, especially in the
area of ecotourism. Ecotourism-is an environmentally responsible travel and
visitation to natural areas, in order to enjoy and appreciate nature and
accompanying cultural features that promote conservation, have a low visitor
impact and provide for the beneficially active socio-economic and involvement of
local people.
13. Areas
which, although not possessing many or unique resources, receive a lot of
support for conservation, whether from ethical, aesthetic, religious or any
other groups
4.
PREPARING MANAGEMENT PLANS FOR PROTECTED AREAS
· Management plan-is a written document that guides
the management process of a particular protected area over a given period of
time. The common time frame for the general management plans is five years. Every
protected area should have a plan to guide its management and to ensure
effective use of limited resources.
DIMENSIONS OF MANAGEMENT PLANS
Management
plans provide guidance in 3 dimensions:
- The space dimension - establishing what should be done in a given place
- Time dimension - establishing what should be done at a given time
- Method dimension - establishing how things should be done
THE PROCESS OF MANAGEMENT PLAN
PREPARATIONS
Management
plans should be ‘participatory’, involving the people affected or who will be
affected by management of the resources (protected area). Participation should
take place as early as possible of the process and continue throughout the
management process involving two audiences.
- External - local people, visitors and other stakeholders
- Internal - the staff who will be charged with the plan’s implementation
NB: The plan
is much more likely to be implemented if the affected audiences are involved in
its development and have a sense of shared ownership.
GUIDELINES
FOR A GOOD MANAGEMENT PLAN
A good management Plan should be:
i)
Clear and accessible:
easy to read, simple and clear language
i.e jargon free and well presented/understandable to those implementing it
ii)
Short and comprehensive:
it should be brief, but with enough
information to fulfill its functions
iii)
Accurate
and objective: should not contain
major errors and criteria for all judgments should be clearly explained
iv)
Systematic
and logical: it should have management policies derived from an assessment
of the site and with a clear rationale/justification given for all suggestion/proposals
v)
Acceptable
and motivating: should be acceptable to all with interests in and who are
in attachment to the site/protected area
vi)
Precise and practical:
with clear objectives, realistic methods for achieving them, resulting in
desired outcomes which can be monitored
vii)
Focused
and effective for fulfilling its
purpose as a tool for site management, meeting the needs of its users and
satisfying any legal or other obligations
viii)
Flexibility:
to allow for change through its working life.
BENEFITS OF A GOOD MANAGEMENT PLANS
i)
Improved
management of a Protected Area
A
good management planning process which has the support of staff and local
people improves management through;-
n Ensuring
that decisions are based on a clear understanding of the Protected Area, its
purpose and the important resources and values associated with it
n Providing
guidelines for managers on day to day operations and long term management
n Providing
continuity of management especial for new staff which helps to maintain the
direction and momentum of management due to its briefing management document
ii)
Improved
use of financial and staff resources
Management plans
improves the use of resources because;
ü Management
plans identify, describe and makes priorities for the management actions required
to achieve the objectives. The list of tasks help managers to allocate staff,
funding and materials required.
iii)
Increased
accountability
n Management
plan can provide a mechanism for increasing accountability of;
a) The Protected Area Managers - because
managers should work within the management plan which is used to identify
targets to be reached, to draw up work plans for staffs, assigning duties and
assess performance
b) The managing organization or
agencies
-Management
plans acts as a public contract between the manager, local communities and
visitors on how to protect and manage Protected Areas
iv) Improved communication
Management plan can provide a useful
link between the managers and those with an interest in the area, and its management
in future. This is done by:
Ø Identifying
key audience with whom the manager needs to communicate
Ø Providing
a means of communication with the public to explain policies and proposals
Ø Promoting and advertising the Protected Areas
to a wide range of stakeholders
